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Search below to delve into the Bitesize Bio archive. Here, you’ll find over two decades of the best articles, live events, podcasts, and resources, created by real experts and passionate mentors, to help you improve as a bioscientist. Whether you’re looking to learn something new or dig deep into a topic, you’ll find trustworthy, human-crafted content that’s ready to inspire and guide you.
Glucose is the preferred food source for E. coli, however when glucose levels drop, E. coli need to look for other ways to feed themselves. One way in which they accomplish this is to replace glucose metabolism with lactose metabolism. The induction and control of lactose metabolism is complicated and its process has been exploited…
The completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003 ushered in a new era of rapid, affordable, and accurate genome analysis—called Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). NGS builds upon “first generation sequencing” technologies to yield accurate and cost-effective sequencing results. Fred Sanger sequenced the first whole DNA genome, the virus phage ?X174, in 1977. In that…
Antibodies are one of the most important tools in molecular biology. Basic researchers use antibodies to identify, locate, isolate and quantify specific proteins. Clinical researchers use antibodies to target a specific drug (such as a chemotherapeutic agent) to a particular cell. Because of the cell specificity provided by the antibody, a higher amount of antibody…
The magnification and viewing of samples using a microscope relies on both the objectives and the eyepieces working harmoniously together. If you buy a ready-to-use microscope, then the objectives and the eyepieces which are fitted as standard will be designed to complement each other. On the other hand, if you are designing and building a…
If I piqued your interest in the first post about my new e-Book ‘The Bitesize Bio Guide to Protein Expression – a Bitesize Bio eBook’ check out this excerpt from the book explaining what an expression system is and how to choose the right one. What is an expression system anyway? There was a time…
An operon is a functioning unit of genomic DNA that contains a group of genes controlled by a single promoter. Put simply, these genes share information needed to create the tools for a particular task so they share a promoter ensuring they’ll all be transcribed together. The lac, or lactose, operon is found in E….
As with some of the greatest discoveries in science, from penicillin to microwave ovens and play-doh, PCR was discovered serendipitously. Thanks to the work of many scientists, including Watson and Crick, Kornberg, Khorana, Klenow, Kleppe (so many K’s…) and Sanger, all the main ingredients for PCR had been described by 1980. Like butter, flour, eggs,…
Cell sorters do not operate by magic, even it looks that way. It’s about the application of physics, electronics, fast computers and formation of droplets. Whether you bring your cells to a flow core to be sorted or you sort them yourself, it important to know how the cell sorter works. Cells can be sorted…
What do these three seemingly disparate studies have in common? After publication, the high-profile findings in each one were questioned due to the presence of batch effects. Batch effects are ever-present and insidious in science, so as researchers we need to always be on guard against them. Keep reading for a run-down of how they…
If efficient cloning is what you are after, you must give Overlap Extension PCR Cloning a go! This restriction enzyme and T4 DNA ligase-free technique is faster, more reliable and easier to troubleshoot than traditional restriction methods. With only two PCR reactions required, you can insert a DNA fragment into a plasmid without spending time…
Super resolution microscopy shattered the lower resolution limit offered by traditional confocal microscopy, enabling us to see more detail. Discover the different super resolution techniques, how they work, and what they are being used for.
It happens to the best of us. You’re minding your own business and suddenly out of nowhere your mastermix is a bubble bath and your primers are enjoying a froth party. Let’s talk about how to deal with these foamy fiends! When you’re making up your mastermix, you could have a variety of ingredients going…
“What Have You Done To My Cells??!!!” This cry of pain from researchers, frequently aimed at core facility operators, is heard after receiving incomprehensible data for an invaluable tube of cells. Equally baffling to the trained user of flow cytometric instrumentation is when data emerges that is either unreliable or inconsistent with the known properties…
MIQE what’s that? When writing dPCR materials and methods for a paper have you ever pondered what information you should include? This is where the MIQE guidelines will really help. Guidelines for minimum information required for publication of a digital PCR (dPCR) experiment were published by JF Huggett et al. in 2013. These were a…
Ever done a multicolour flow cytometry experiment, run all your controls, done your compensation and then started to analyse your data and realised that you can’t work out where to put your gates? To err is human… When acquiring data on a cytometer, there can be measurement errors due to counting statistics, errors in processing…
It has been said that “Incomprehensible jargon is the hallmark of a profession” (Kingman Brewster, Jr) and while I cannot speak for other professions, as a biologist I am inclined to believe it. So whether you need to cover your qualifying exam bases, want to avoid looking like an idiot to your coworkers, or need…
No, this is not a call for Geeks to take over the world – just a tiny part of it – the part that ensures success in all experiments or at least a good way to analyze them if they fail. There are all too many entry points for error and variability that can be…
Dear Aunt Yersinia, I work with a yeast vector where my gene is under a Gal promoter. My boss told me to grow yeast in medium with sucrose, and then add galactose to induce the promoter. I did it, but my protein is not induced; the Western blot is empty. I sequenced a part of…
If you ever used a site-directed mutagenesis kit or ligation-independent cloning, then you also used restriction enzyme Dpn I. But what does it do and more interestingly, why? Restriction enzymes and methylases: the yin and yang of bacteria Usual restriction enzymes, the toolkit of genetic engineering, are one half of the “yin and yang” pair…
The wide range of applications of PCR has led to an ever-growing list of variants of the technique. While some are optimizations to suit specific requirements and are very similar to basic PCR, others completely turn the technique on its head to formulate novel creative applications in various fields. This article lists some variants of…
Two different sensors are generally used in cameras for microscopy: Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) or Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductors (CMOS or sCMOS). Although there are a number of similarities between the two sensors, differences in the way they function can have an effect on image capture time as well as signal-to-noise ratio. Let’s take a…
Cytokines, those small proteins that modulate immune cell responses, once translated are normally secreted rapidly out of the cell. So, previously we could only check the levels of cytokines secreted in the supernatant, but we wouldn’t know which cell was producing which cytokine. But what if we had a way to keep the cytokines inside the cell? Then we…
You’re about to start that big project you’ve been dreaming of for years. You’ve identified a potential miracle compound and want to figure out how it affects gene expression. But how are you going to do it: with next gen sequencing or a microarray? Especially if you are new to this area of research, the…
Like the legendary fight between boxers Bowen and Burke in 1893, the cell cycle in some cells goes on and on..round 1, round 2, round 3, round 4…before the final bell is rung. Nucleotide analogs, like BrdU or EdU, are great for examining 1-2 cell cycle division(s). In many studies though, for example the proliferation…
Westerns can be tricky and time-consuming, so make the most of your precious membranes and their proteins. Learn how to properly strip off your antibodies and re-probe with another primary antibody. Why you should strip Scientific reasons: To conserve protein samples that are limited or expensive. So that you can analyse the same sample with…
There is a right way and a wrong way to set up a PCR laboratory. Because of PCR’s tremendous ability to amplify small quantities of DNA/RNA template, even the smallest of template contamination can become a huge problem in PCR. However, contamination does not have to be a problem in your laboratory. Read below to…
Good news lab workers! Always hated the tedious work of designing a cloning strategy? Or maybe always dreamed of pooling all the reactions in one tube, just to save time? Thanks to Mother Nature, and her wonderful type IIS endonucleases, this is now possible! What is this wonderful enzyme? Type II enzymes are one of…
Biosafety is one of those things many scientists don’t take seriously. I would guess, that like politics, there are 40% who believe biosafety is ‘over-emphasized’ and 40% who swear by biosafety. 20% are undecided. Needless to say, I’m on the side of biosafety. And here’s why: “CDC announced today that approximately 75 Atlanta-based staff are…
You have your favorite protein in mind and are ready to set up some exciting experiments to show what it does and how it does it, when it is active, what other proteins it modifies, and how it affects your cells. There is one slight problem. You need to fish your favorite protein out from the…
Let’s imagine the following scenario: You are researching a biosynthetic pathway in your favorite fungus. You know that this pathway produces a family of toxic compounds, and you want to see if you can block this pathway (or parts of it) with an antifungal drug. You have a control (no antifungal) and samples that have…
Flow cytometer and cell sorter manufacturers have invested considerable resources to design instruments that are the “fastest in the ‘hood” either in terms of cells analyzed per second, or in total throughput. The general idea is the faster you can go, the quicker you can identify rare cells, and produce sorted populations containing large numbers…
If you’re an HPLC guru, then you probably think that everyone should be using HPLC. And you might have a point – HPLC is very powerful and has broad applications across many fields. But it isn’t the answer to every problem. HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) is used to separate mixtures of compounds based on their…
As frustration goes, cloning is often up there with trying to thread a camel through the eye of a needle. You do everything carefully: prepare your vector and fragment DNA, cut them as the restriction enzyme manufacturer instructs (complete digest in five minutes!), ligate, transform and go home in anticipation of a good number of…
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) is a biochemical technique developed by Kary Mullis in 1983 that is used to create large quantities of a sequence of DNA. Since this method of mass-producing DNA was first introduced, it has become significantly less labour intensive, more economical, and more routine. The technique relies on a few key players…
While the classic approach to molecular cloning – using restriction enzymes to excise a DNA fragment of interest – is as useful as ever, new techniques that make cloning faster, easier and more versatile are available. As a smart molecular biologist, you should be examining each of them to see whether or not adding them…
After a very naïve start in flow cytometry thinking that published protocols will work without fault – needless to say, that did not work out in my favor – I realize now that following a few simple steps can go a long way, and will undoubtedly save you time in the end. So, here are…
After you finish immunoprecipitating a protein or purifying a subcellular compartment, you need to identify what proteins you purified. You could attempt to identify your purified proteins the old fashioned (and slow!) way by running a multitude of Western blot. But rarely do labs have unlimited funds for Western blot antibodies. And lets face it,…
If you work with an HPLC, then you know the frustration of going to use the machine and finding it in disarray. If you’re new to using an HPLC, then the machine can be intimidating to use and you might not know the ins and outs of using it. Here’s an article that has a…
Your advisor tells you that he wants you to use HPLC to analyze your compound. You know that you’ve heard of this technique before, but you can’t remember what HPLC stands for, let alone how to go about doing it! We’ve all been there, though. Fear not! In this article, we will remind you about…
Your advisor tells you that he wants you to use HPLC to analyze your compound. You know you’ve heard of this technique before, but you can’t remember what HPLC stands for, let alone how to go about doing it! We’ve all been there, and I bet you wish you had paid more attention in that…
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